Organisational change was first understood in terms of the three stage model which explained how to initiate, manage and stabilise the change process . You may recall the three stages:
• Unfreezing (i.e., to create the motivation to change);
• Moving (i.e., experimentation and implementation), and
• Refreezing (i.e., stabilising the process).
A force-field analysis technique was recommended to compare the forces pressing for and fostering change to the forces leading organisations to resist change and moving back to reintroduce past patterns. The hiring of change agents to facilitate the change process was also suggested.Based on the three stage model and an understanding of employee resistance, another Change Model was developed, which entails the following five phases:
• Development of need for change (unfreezing);
• Establishment of change relationship;
• Working towards change (moving);
• Generalisation and stabilisation of change (refreezing); and
• Achieving a terminal relationship.
These and other Change Models are summarized in Table .Since 1990s, several change management models have been proposed an implemented. We now discuss, in brief, some contemporary models of change management.
The Congruence Model
According to the Congruence Model, developed by Nadler and Tushman (1992), change has both hardware and software tools for building organisation architectures (Table).
• Unfreezing (i.e., to create the motivation to change);
• Moving (i.e., experimentation and implementation), and
• Refreezing (i.e., stabilising the process).
A force-field analysis technique was recommended to compare the forces pressing for and fostering change to the forces leading organisations to resist change and moving back to reintroduce past patterns. The hiring of change agents to facilitate the change process was also suggested.Based on the three stage model and an understanding of employee resistance, another Change Model was developed, which entails the following five phases:
• Development of need for change (unfreezing);
• Establishment of change relationship;
• Working towards change (moving);
• Generalisation and stabilisation of change (refreezing); and
• Achieving a terminal relationship.
These and other Change Models are summarized in Table .Since 1990s, several change management models have been proposed an implemented. We now discuss, in brief, some contemporary models of change management.
The Congruence Model
According to the Congruence Model, developed by Nadler and Tushman (1992), change has both hardware and software tools for building organisation architectures (Table).
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| Tools for Building Organisational Architectures |
A manager has to align both the hardware and software tools of change to understand the reasons of performance gap(s) in the changed environment.Fig. illustrates the steps envisaged in this Model for complete congruence analysis.
Change Management Process Model
The Change Management Process Model provides a sequence of stages that each change proposal should undergo to effectively combine people and the technical side of change. It identifies nine stages for creating and implementing organisational change (Fig. 6.6. These stages require management within an organisation to understand and apply the characteristics of both strategic and grass roots change.In the early stages, the emphasis has to be on strategic change management wherein the senior management develops a vision for change based on the analysis of current organisational practices.A select few engaged in the task then formulate recommendations, and detail them for testing. In the later stages, the Model requires a greater application of different aspects of grassroots change. More people across and down the organisation are involved during pilot testing and rollout to ensure successful implementation.
The ADKAR Model
The ADKAR (Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement) Model (Fig.) helps managers to
•identify gaps in the change management process, and provide effective training to the employees.
•The Model assumes that to make change successful, it should occur simultaneously in both the business and people dimensions.
The Model is used to achieve the following objectives:
The Change Management Process Model provides a sequence of stages that each change proposal should undergo to effectively combine people and the technical side of change. It identifies nine stages for creating and implementing organisational change (Fig. 6.6. These stages require management within an organisation to understand and apply the characteristics of both strategic and grass roots change.In the early stages, the emphasis has to be on strategic change management wherein the senior management develops a vision for change based on the analysis of current organisational practices.A select few engaged in the task then formulate recommendations, and detail them for testing. In the later stages, the Model requires a greater application of different aspects of grassroots change. More people across and down the organisation are involved during pilot testing and rollout to ensure successful implementation.
The ADKAR Model
The ADKAR (Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement) Model (Fig.) helps managers to
•identify gaps in the change management process, and provide effective training to the employees.
•The Model assumes that to make change successful, it should occur simultaneously in both the business and people dimensions.
The Model is used to achieve the following objectives:
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| The ADKAR Model of Change |
− diagnose employee resistance;
− help employee transition through the change process;
− create a successful action plan for personal and professional advancement during change; and
− develop a change management plan for the employees.
Changes occur in two dimensions: the business dimension, and the people dimension. The business dimension includes the typical project elements (e.g., new processes and systems, organisational structure), whereas the people dimension of change deals with the perception of change by the employees. The latter dimension is the most common reason for the failure of any project or change. Therefore, effective management of the people dimension is most desirable. It requires managing five key phases which form the basis of the ADKAR Model.
Awareness : of the need to change D esire
Knowledge : to participate and support the change.: of how to change (and what the change looks like).Ability
Reinforcement : to implement the change on a day-to-day basis.: to keep the change in place.
The reaction of an employee to change and how s/he is viewed by the organisation will be directly affected by each of the five elements in theADKAR Model. Therefore, while implementing a major change in the organisation, awareness must be created among employees of the reason for change. Desire to change at the employee level must be addressed as resistance to change is a natural reaction. As the change moves into implementation, it becomes imperative to develop knowledge about the change and the ability to implement new skills and behaviours. Once the change is in place, it needs to be reinforced and any movement backward to old behaviours should be avoided through constant dialogue and training.
Intervention Strategy Model (ISM)
Intervention Strategy Model provides strategies to deal effectively with messy change situations through the application of systems thinking. From the perspective of managing change, a system may be defined as being an organised assembly of components, which are related in such a way that the behaviour of any individual component will influence the overall status of the system.
The various phases of stages of the Model as given in Fig. are described below:
− help employee transition through the change process;
− create a successful action plan for personal and professional advancement during change; and
− develop a change management plan for the employees.
Changes occur in two dimensions: the business dimension, and the people dimension. The business dimension includes the typical project elements (e.g., new processes and systems, organisational structure), whereas the people dimension of change deals with the perception of change by the employees. The latter dimension is the most common reason for the failure of any project or change. Therefore, effective management of the people dimension is most desirable. It requires managing five key phases which form the basis of the ADKAR Model.
Awareness : of the need to change D esire
Knowledge : to participate and support the change.: of how to change (and what the change looks like).Ability
Reinforcement : to implement the change on a day-to-day basis.: to keep the change in place.
The reaction of an employee to change and how s/he is viewed by the organisation will be directly affected by each of the five elements in theADKAR Model. Therefore, while implementing a major change in the organisation, awareness must be created among employees of the reason for change. Desire to change at the employee level must be addressed as resistance to change is a natural reaction. As the change moves into implementation, it becomes imperative to develop knowledge about the change and the ability to implement new skills and behaviours. Once the change is in place, it needs to be reinforced and any movement backward to old behaviours should be avoided through constant dialogue and training.
Intervention Strategy Model (ISM)
Intervention Strategy Model provides strategies to deal effectively with messy change situations through the application of systems thinking. From the perspective of managing change, a system may be defined as being an organised assembly of components, which are related in such a way that the behaviour of any individual component will influence the overall status of the system.
The various phases of stages of the Model as given in Fig. are described below:
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| Intervention Strategy Model (Source: Paton & McCalman, 2000) |
Problem Initialisation
The change situation is identified and accordingly the process of managing the change is commenced. It is done in three phases and each phase has several stages.
•Phase 1 : Definition Phase
An in-depth specification and study of the change situation from both historical and futuristic viewpoints is made in the following sequence.
Stage-1: Problem / Systems Specification Management conducts meetings and interviews to gather accurate picture of the present system and the likely impact of the changes.Since it is the first formal notification of the change, efforts should be made to minimise resistance and non-cooperation.
Stage-2: Formulation of Success Criteria
The success criteria associated with a particular change situation may be defined in two ways: The first and most common criterion involves the setting of objectives and constraints. The second is merely a continuation of the first in that it generates options or paths, which are tagged on to the original objective.
Stage-3: Identification of Performance Measures
Having decided the objectives, appropriate measures are formulated.
•Phase 2 : Evaluation Phase
The definition phase highlights the key players in the change process, who should in some way, be involved in the generation of potential solutions to the problem.
Stage-4: Generation of Options or Solutions
A wide range of techniques is available to the problem owners which assist in option generation. Groups and teams should be involved to
operate effectively.
Stage-5: Selection of Appropriate Evaluation Techniques and Option Editing Having identified the potential options and solutions, screening of options is necessary. A brief comparative study of the five points and the predetermined success criteria acts as screening devices.
Stage-6: Option Evaluation
Options are evaluated against the previously determined change objectives, in particular the performance measures identified in
stage 3.
•Phase 3 : Implementation Phase
Stage-7: Development of Implementation Strategies
In this stage, the findings are packaged into a coherent whole and the changes are introduced in the system. Essentially, three basic
implementation strategies, viz. pilot studies, parallel running, and big bang are used.
Stage-8: Consolidation
Since old practices do not die easily, problem owners need to nurture the growth of new practices. Implementation is not the end of the
process; lessons learnt must be openly discussed and communicated.Change agents must encourage employees to accept the new
developments in an organisation.
Finally, the environmental development feedback loop, linking the final outcome with that of the ‘initial situation’ indicates that the change cycle is never complete. Dynamic environmental factors over a period of time will again necessitate additional change, and so the process will commence again.
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